History Of Embroidery
A STITCH IN TIME
The Art of Embroidery and
Its History and Place in Time and Culture
Embroidery is the ornamentation of textile fabrics and other materials with needlework. One of the most common uses for embroidery today is in the promotional products industry. The word derives from the Middle English term embrouderie, which in turn is related to the Old French verb, embroder. The art of embroidery dates back to a very primitive stage in the history of mankind. Plain stitching was among the earliest attributes of civilization; from attaining the ability to sew, it was a small step to the development of decorative needlework. The discovery of bone needles with eyes used to sew together skins and furs among the remains of Swiss lake-dwellings of prehistoric times shows that these primitive inhabitants were acquainted with the art of stitching. A Cro-Magnon hunter’s fossilized remains from circa 30,000 BCE were found in Sungir near Vladimir, Russia. His fur clothing, boots, and hat were heavily decorated with hand-stitched horizontal rows of ivory beads, one of the earliest examples of ornamental decoration. Bead embroidery from 5000-6000 BCE discovered in Siberia feature elaborately drilled shells stitched with decorative designs onto animal hides.
Examples of Chinese “longevity embroidery” and “token embroidery” retrieved from the Mawangdui Han Tomb in Changsha, Hunan Province indicate a high level of artistic competence at an early date, and Wang Jia (of the Chin Dynasty era) noted that Madame Zhao, wife of Lord Wu, had embroidered a map of the kingdom featuring its “mountain ranges, rivers and sees, all clearly shown,” on a single piece of silk fabric. Portuguese incursions into China during the Ming Dynasty introduced examples of these exquisitely embroidered items to Europe; many sources believe that Chinese thread embroidery from as early as 3500 BCE is the model for the art as we know it today. Suzhou or “Su” embroidery is an ancient technique, and pieces of brilliantly colored silk worked with intricate and detailed depictions of animals, people and objects dating back hundreds of years still exist. Shaanxi embroiderers (Hanzhong Basin) of the modern era have preserved and expanded upon their ancestral craft, and their work is world-renowned for its smooth, glossy finish, the imaginative use of thick and thin silk threads, and a wide variety of stitches, especially the ever-popular cross-stitch. China also perfected stunning “two-sided” embroideries worked entirely in silk, which commonly take several years to produce, and can command thousands of dollars, depending on the elaborateness of the design and subject
Evidence of highly sophisticated decorative needlework can be found in ancient Egypt circa 1800 BCE. The Nile Valley’s sandy soil and dry climate helped to preserve fragments of woven stuffs and embroideries of unique historic interest. Surviving remnants deriving from the era of Thutmosis IV at his capital city of Thebes include fragments made of linen interwoven with patterns in blue, red, green, and black. A kind of tapestry method was used by the sewers, the patterns having been fashioned on the warp threads of the ground instead of the finished web or woven material. Such a process was generally supplemented with a few stitches of fine needlework, and was still in common use at a far later date.
The Egyptians were equally skilled in the use of appliqué with leather and beads. A noteworthy example is the funeral tent of Queen Isi em Kheb (XXIst Dynasty). This remarkable piece of Egyptian needlework is described as a mosaic of leatherwork-pieces of gazelle hide of several colors stitched together.
The largest of three fragments surviving at Cairo bears, in addition to rows of lotus flowers and papyrus inflorescences, a cartouche containing the name of Amenophis (Amenhotep) II (15th century BCE); another bears the name of Thutmosis III (16th century BCE). Other embroidered stuffs are depicted on the wall-paintings and sculptured reliefs which have survived in Egypt in considerable numbers.
From the ancient civilizations of Babylon and Assyria no actual fragments of embroidery, or even of woven stuffs, have come down to us; but a fine series of wall-reliefs from Nineveh gives us some idea of the geometrical and floral patterns and diapers (a cloth, usually of linen, patterned by opposite reflections from its surface) which adorned the robes of the ancient Assyrians.
The ruins of the palace of Persian King Darius I (521-485 BCE) discovered at Susa in 1885 have thrown some light on the textile art of this ancient civilization. They evidently owed much to the nations whom they had supplanted. The famous relief from this palace represents a procession of archers wearing long robes covered with small diaper patterns, perhaps of embroidery.
The exact significance of the words used in the biblical Book of Exodus in describing the robes of Aaron and the hangings and ornaments of the Tabernacle cannot be precisely determined, and the “broider’d work” of the prophecy of Ezekial at a later date is also of uncertain meaning. It seems likely that much of this ancient work was of the tapestry class, similar to what has found in the early fragments from Thebes.
The methods of the ancient Greek embroiderer or “variegator” to whom woven garments were submitted for enrichment can only be conjectured. The peplos or woven cloth made every fifth year to cover the statue of Athena in the Parthenon at Athens, and carried at the Panathenaic festival, was ornamented with the battles of the gods and giants. Some historians have speculated that the elaborate work upon these peploi was done by needle. That true embroidery in the modern sense—the decoration by means of the needle of a finished woven material—was practiced among the ancient Greeks has been demonstrated by the discovery of some textile fragments in graves in the Crimea. One of them of purple woolen material, from a tomb assigned to the 4th century BCE, is embroidered in wools of different colors with a man on horseback, honeysuckle ornament, and tendrils. Another woolen piece attributed to the following century has a stem and arrowhead leaves worked in gold thread.
The naturalist Pliny’s account of the craft reflected the views current in Rome at his time (the 1st century AD). After relating that Homer mentions embroidered garments (pictas vestes), he states that the Phrygians first used a needle for embroidered robes, which were thence called Phrygioniae, and that Attalic garments were named for Attalus II, King of Pergamum from 159-138 BCE, the inventor of the art of embroidering in gold. He further relates that Babylon gave the name to embroideries of divers colors for the production of which that city was especially famous. The Romans designated the art as “painting with the needle” (acu pingcre), a term used by Virgil in speaking of the decoration of robes, and by Ovid (who describes it as an art taught by Minerva), and by other Roman writers when referring to embroidery.
The extant embroideries made under Roman influence have been uncovered primarily in Egypt. Such works formed the decoration of garments (chiefly tunics with vertical bands [clavi] and medallions [orbiculae], and an ample outer robe or cloak) and mummy-wrappings from the cemeteries in Upper and Middle Egypt, which, sadly, have been extensively looted over time. Those of the Roman type date from the first five centuries of the Christian era. The earliest designs represent human figures, animals, birds, geometrical and interlacing ornaments, vases, fruit, flowers, and foliage (especially vines).
These are generally worked in purple wool and undyed linen thread by the same tapestry process employed in Egypt some fifteen centuries earlier. Many of these patterns have had their lines more clearly marked out by the ordinary method of needlework. Towards the end of this period a greater choice of colors is seen, Christian symbols begin to appear, and examples worked entirely upon the finished web are found. The transition is easily made from such work to “needle-paintings” representing scenes from the gospels, which were produced in Egypt shortly thereafter. Such embroideries seem akin to those mentioned by Bishop Asterius (330-410), who describes the garments worn by some Christians as “painted like the walls of their houses.” (For example, the Adoration of the Magi, as represented upon the lower border of the long robe worn by the empress Theodora, wife of Justinian, also appears in the mosaic in the church of St. Vitale at Ravenna, Italy.)
For centuries from the time of Byzantine Emperor Justinian I (527-565), the art of embroidery was dominated by the Byzantine Empire. Perhaps the most remarkable example of all those which have survived to illustrate the work of the Byzantine embroiderers is the blue silk robe known as the “Dalmatic of Charlemagne” (or of Emperor Leo III), preserved in the sacristy of St. Peter’s Basilica at Rome. According to a consensus of opinion, it belongs to a later time than either of those dignitaries, dating most probably from the 12th century, although various historians have assigned other dates to this vestment ranging from as early as the 9th century to as late as the 14th or early 15th century. On the front of the vestment is depicted Christ as a youthful but majestic figure, enthroned as the Judge of the world, while on the reverse is an image of the Transfiguration. These as well as the minor subjects are explained by Greek inscriptions.
The wide influence of Byzantine art gradually died out after the Latin sack of Constaninople in the year 1204, although the style lingered on, most notably at Mount Athos in Thrace. Palermo in Sicily succeeded Byzantium as the capitol of the arts in Europe, although its ascendancy was of brief duration. Under the Norman kings of Sicily the prevailing style became strongly Oriental, influenced no doubt by the earlier occupation of the island by the Muslims, and the subsequent employment of Saracen craftsmen by the Normans. The magnificent red silk mantle preserved in Vienna, embroidered in gold thread with a date palm and two lions springing upon camels, and enriched with pearls and enamel plaques, bears round the edge an Arabic inscription recording that it was made in the royal factory of the capital of Sicily (Palermo) in the Hegira Year 528 (or 1134 AD). At that time Roger I, the first Norman king, was on the throne. Another of the imperial coronation-robes—a linen alb with gold embroidery—is also housed in Vienna. An inscription in Latin and Arabic states that it was made in the year 1181 under the reign of William II (Norman King of Sicily, 1166-1189).
About this time distinct national styles began to emerge throughout Europe. In tracing the progress of the embroiderer’s art during the Middle Ages we must rely mainly upon the many fine examples of ecclesiastical work which have been preserved. The costumes of men and women, as well as curtains and hangings and similar articles of domestic use, were often richly adorned with embroidery. Sadly, most of these have been lost. At the same time, the careful preservation and comparatively infrequent use of vestments and other materials devoted to the service of the church have given us tangible evidence of the attainments of the medieval embroiderer. Much of this work was produced in convents, but old documents show that in monasteries men were also known for their skill in needlework. Other names, of both men and women, are recorded, showing that the craft was by no means exclusively confined to monastic foundations, and guilds of embroiderers existed early in medieval times.
In England the craft has been a favorite employment for many centuries, and persons of all ranks have occupied their spare hours with needlework. Some embroidered fragments found in 1826-27 in the tomb of St. Cuthbert at Durham and preserved in the Cathedral Library, were worked, chiefly in gold thread, under the direction of Ælfflæda, Queen of British King Edward the Elder, for the use of Fridestan, Bishop of Winchester early in the 10th century. In the later part of the following century (circa 1066), the magnificent “Bayeux Tapestry” was produced, a work of unique beauty and historical significance. The band of linen measures more than 230 feet long, and is embroidered in colored wools with scenes depicting the Battle of Hastings during the Norman conquest of Britain. Legend has it that the composition was created by over a hundred noble women in the town of Bayeux in Normandy, where the hanging is still preserved in the local cathedral.
Some fragments of metallic embroidery on silk of the 12th and 13th centuries may be seen in the library of Worcester Cathedral. They were removed from the coffins of two bishops, William de Blois (1218-1236) and Walter de Cantelupe (1236-1266). A fragment of gold embroidery from the tomb of the latter bishop is preserved in the Victoria and Albert Museum, and others are housed in the British Museum. In the 13th century English embroidery was famous throughout western Europe, and many embroidered objects are described in inventories of that time as being de opere anglicano. During that century and the early part of the next, English work reached its peak of accomplishment. The most famous example is the “Syon Cope” at South Kensington, belonging to the latter half of the 13th century. It represents the coronation of the Virgin, the Crucifixion, the Archangel Michael transfixing the dragon, the death and burial of the Virgin Mary, our Lord meeting Mary Magdalene in the garden, the Apostles, and the hierarchies of angels. The broad orphrey is embroidered with a series of heraldic shields.
During the 14th and 15th centuries embroideries produced in England failed to meet the standards of earlier times. Towards the end of the latter century and until the dissolution of the monasteries in the next, much ecclesiastical embroidery of effective design was done, and many examples are still to be seen in churches throughout the country. In the Tudor period the costumes of the wealthy were often richly adorned with needlework. The portraits of King Henry VIII, Queen Elizabeth I, and their courtiers show how magnificent was the embroidery used for such purposes. Many examples, especially of the latter reign, are covered with very effective and beautiful floral patterns, and have survived to modern times.
A style of embroidery known as “black work,” done in black silk on linen, was popular during the same era, and a tunic embroidered for Queen Elizabeth I, with devices copied from contemporary woodcuts, is an excellent example of this work. Another style popular at the same time was closely worked in wools and silks upon open-mesh material like canvas, which was entirely covered by the embroidery, and often featured figures in rich costume. This method was much practised in France, and the term applied to it in that country, “au petit point,” has been appropriated for general use.
Crewel work (two-ply wool worked on linen twill) was developed during this era, and was utilized generally for bed coverings, wall hangings, and chair covers. “Jacobean” embroidery, as it is popularly though inappropriately labeled, continues to be popular in modern times. “White” embroidery (white thread on a white ground), “Dresden” lace (of highly-detailed drawn stitches and patterns), and “Ayrshire” patterns (characterized by heavy padding and intricate openwork) are other examples of Western European innovations. Other lands devised their own unique methods: the “Hardanger” stitch in Norway, the “Hedebo” in Denmark, and “Reticella” cutwork in Italy. The Slavic and Baltic nations, including Poland and Ukraine, are world-renowned for their cutwork (“Kolaska”), and the elaborate, brightly-colored satin and “darned” stitchery which have adorned their native costumes from an early time.
Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries embroidery in England maintained its high standard. Bold floral patterns for hangings, curtains, and coverlets were usual, but smaller works, such as samplers, covers of work-boxes, and pictorial and landscape subjects, also were produced in large numbers. During the 18th century extensive embroidery of gentlemen’s coats and waistcoats and ladies’ dresses was introduced. These arts were naturally carried over into other parts of the world, most significantly into the American colonies, while “Broderie anglaise” (featuring variants of “white” work, satin-stitching, and cutwork) is still being produced today as “Madeira Work” for the tourist trade off the coast of South Africa.
India has also produced “white” work of such skill that the needle doesn’t pierce through the back of the piece, breaking only the ground threads. Although the training required for such intricacy has not been maintained, India still produces (and has produced over the centuries) embroidered works of extraordinary beauty, taking its inspiration from both nature and religion, with the colors, theme, and style reflecting particular regions. “Art” needlework, a type of surface embroidery emphasizing delicate shading based on needlework of earlier centuries, became popular once again in the late 19th century. “Pre-Raphaelite” proponents of the “Arts and Crafts” movement, including fantasist William Morris, sold custom-made pieces in the “new” style, as well as the vegetable-dyed silks and “kits” necessary to reproduce the patterns in his shops. The “Berlin” or counted-thread technique was another fad of the 19th century.
In France, medieval embroidery was characterized by much grace and beauty, and many good specimens belonging to different periods are known. The vestments associated with the name of St. Thomas of Canterbury at Sens may be either of French or English work (12th century). To the later part of the 13th century belongs a band of embroidery representing the coronation of the Virgin, the Adoration of the Magi, the presentation in the Temple, and other subjects beneath Gothic arches, preserved in the Hôtel-Dieu at Château Thierry. The mitre of Jean de Marigny, Archbishop of Rouen (1347-1351) in the museum at Evreux is embroidered with figures of St. Peter and St. Eloy, and may be regarded as representative of 14th-century works. An altar frontal with the Annunciation embroidered in silks and gold and silver upon a blue silk damask ground, now in the museum at Lille, is a very beautiful example of Franco-Flemish art in the second half of the 15th century. It was originally housed in the church at Noyelles-lez-Seclin.
An embroidery more characteristically French, and belonging to the same century, is in the museum at Chartres. It is a triptych featuring in the middle a pietà, on the left wing St. John the Evangelist, and on the right St. Catherine of Alexandria. Each leaf has a canopy of architecture represented in perspective. In the 16th century a particularly effective style of embroidery was practiced in France. The pattern was generally a graceful combination of floral and scroll forms, cut out of velvet, satin, or silk, and applied to a thick woolen cloth. Later work of this nature, chiefly of a floral character, has served for the decoration of costumes, ecclesiastical vestments, curtains and hangings, and the seats and backs of chairs.
Under the rule of the Dukes of Burgundy in the 15th century, art in the southern provinces of the Netherlands prospered greatly, and able artists were found to meet the wishes of those munificent rulers. The local schools of painting which flourished under their patronage appear to have influenced the embroiderers’ art quite considerably. Great pains were taken to reproduce as accurately as possible the painted design or picture which served as the base model. Heads are individualized, the folds of the draperies are laboriously worked out, the masonry of buildings, the veinings of marble, and the architectural enrichments are represented with careful fidelity, and landscape backgrounds are shown in every detail. As in the case of the tapestries of the Netherlands—the finest which the world has seen—there can be no doubt that patrons of art and donors, when requiring embroideries to be made, secured the services of eminent painters of the day for their designs.
Among the many examples of such careful work is a set of vestments from the 15th century known as the ornament de la Toison d’Or, now housed in the Hof-Museum at Vienna. The items are embroidered in the most minute manner with sacred subjects and figures of saints and angels. While the stiff appearance of many of these figures within flattened hexagons arranged in zones is not visually pleasing, the needlework itself is most remarkable for its skill and carefulness.
A cope belonging to the second half of the same century was donated to the Cathedral of Tourney by Guillaume Fillatre, Abbot of St. Bertin at St. Omer, and Bishop of Tourney (d. 1473), and is now housed in the museum there. Upon the orphreys and hood are represented the seven Works of Mercy. The body of the cope, of plain red velvet, is powdered with stags’ heads and martlets (the heraldic bearings of the bishop); between the antlers of the stags is worked in each case the initial letter of the bishop’s name, and the morse is embroidered with his arms.
Some panels of embroidery once decorating an altar in the Abbey of Grimbergen illustrate the best class of Flemish needlework in the 16th century. The scenes are taken from the Gospel: the marriage at Cana, Christ in the house of the Pharisee, Christ in the house of Zacchaeus, the Last Supper, and the dinner at Emmaus. Some embroideries of extraordinary historic and artistic value discovered in the tent of Charles the Bold, last Duke of Burgundy, following his defeat at Granson in 1476, are housed in the museum at Bern, Switzerland. They include armorial panels and two tabards or heralds’ coats. A tabard of the following century with the royal arms of Spain in applied work, most probably of Flemish origin, is preserved in the archeological museum at Ghent.
The later art of Holland was largely influenced by Dutch conquests in the East Indies at the end of the 16th century, and the subsequent founding of the Dutch East India Company. Embroideries were among the many articles produced in the East under Dutch influence for exportation to Holland.
Much embroidery for ecclesiastical purposes has been executed in Belgium in more modern times. While it often follows medieval models, it lacks the qualities which made those pieces so much important in the history of art.
There was little embroidery of special note in Italy before the beginning of the 14th century, but the embroideries produced beginning at that time show great skill and beauty. The names of two Florentine embroiderers of the 14th century have come down to us, inscribed upon their handiwork. A fine frontal for an altar, very delicately worked in gold and silver and silks of many colors, is preserved in the archeological museum at Florence. The subject in the middle is the coronation of the Virgin; on either side is an arcade with figures of apostles and saints. The embroiderer’s name is worked into the design under the central subject: Jacobus Cambi de Floretia me facit MCCCXXXVIII.
The other example is in the basilica at Manresa in Spain. It also is an altar-frontal worked in silk and gold upon an embroidered gold ground. There is a large central panel representing the Crucifixion, with nine scenes from the Gospel on each side. The embroidered inscription is as follows: Geri Lapi rachamtore me fecit in Florentia. An embroidered orphrey in the Victoria and Albert Museum belongs to the early part of the same century. It represents the Annunciation, the coronation of the Virgin, and figures of apostles and saints beneath arches. In the spandrels are the order of angels with their names in Italian.
During the most proficient period of Italian art, successful painters did not disdain to design for embroidery. Francesco Squarcione (1304-1474), the founder of the Paduan school of painting and master of Mantegna, is entitled, in a document of the year 1423, a “tailor and embroiderer” (sartor et recamator). It is recorded that Antonio del Pollaiuolo painted designs which were carried out in embroidery (some embroideries from vestments designed by Pollaiuolo are still preserved in the Museo dell’ Opera del Duomo, Florence), and Pierino del Vaga, according to Vasari, did likewise.
In the 16th and 17th centuries large numbers of towels and linen covers were embroidered in red, green, or brown silk with borders of floral patterns, sometimes (especially in the southern provinces) combined with figure subjects and bird and animal forms. Another type of embroidery popular at the same time, both in Italy and Spain, is known as appliqué (or applied) work. The pattern is cut out and applied to a brightly-colored ground, frequently of velvet. The later embroidery of Sicily follows that of the mainland. A remarkable coverlet, quilted and padded with wool so as to throw the design into relief, is shown to be of Sicilian origin by the inscriptions which it bears. It represents scenes from the story of Tristan, agreeing in the main part with the novella entitled La Tavola Rotonda o l’Istoria di Tristano. The quilt dates from the end of the 14th century. Many pattern-books for embroidery and lace were published in Italy in the 16th and 17th centuries. Others, sometimes with the same illustrations, appeared in France and Germany, and no doubt advanced the general tendency towards Italian models at the time. A few pattern-books were also published in England.
In the greater part of the Spanish peninsula, art was for many centuries dominated by the Arabs, who overran the country in the 8th century, and were not finally subdued until the end of the 15th. Hispano-Moorish embroideries of the medieval period usually have interlacing patterns combined with Arabic inscriptions. In the 15th and 16th centuries an Italian influence becomes evident. Still later, the effects of the Spanish conquests in Asia are seen.
Eastern influence is, however, far stronger in the case of the Portuguese, who seized Goa on the west coast of India early in the 16th century, and during the whole of that century held a monopoly on eastern trade. Many large embroideries were produced in the Indies, showing eastern floral patterns mingled with representations of Europeans, ships, and coats of arms. Embroideries done in Portugal in the 16th and 17th centuries strongly reflect the influence of Oriental patterns.
German embroidery of the 12th and 13th centuries adheres closely to the traditions of Byzantine art. A peculiarity of much medieval German work is a tendency to treat draperies of figures as flat surfaces to be covered with diaper patterns, showing no folds. A cope from Hildesheim Cathedral, now in the Victoria and Albert Museum, is typical of such work, dating from the end of the 13th century. It is embroidered in silk upon linen with the martyrdom of apostles and saints. Other specimens of embroidery in this manner may be seen at Halberstadt. An altar-frontal from Rupertsburg (Bingen) belonging to the earlier years of the 13th century is now in the Brussels Museum. It is of purple silk, embroidered with Christ in majesty and the figures of saints. It was no doubt made in the time of Siegfried, Archbishop of Mainz (1201-1230), who is represented upon it.
Another type of medieval German embroidery is done in white linen thread on a loose linen ground—a sort of “darning” work. Earlier specimens of this work are often diversified by employing a variety of stitches tending to form diaper patterns. The use of long scrolling bands with inscriptions explaining the subjects represented is more usual in German work than in that of any other country. In the 15th century much fine embroidery was produced in the neighborhood of Cologne. Later German work shows a preference for bold floral patterns sometimes mingled with heraldry; the larger examples are often worked in wool on a woolen cloth ground.
The embroidery of Scandinavia (Denmark, Scandinavia, Iceland) developed later than that of the rest of Europe. Figure subjects evidently belonging to as late a period as the 17th century were disposed in formal rows of circles, and accompanied by primitive ornamental forms. A remarkable early embroidered fabric covers the relics of St. Knud (Canute, King of Denmark, 1080-1086) in his shrine in the church dedicated to him at Odense, and is, apparently, a contemporary work. The pattern consists of displayed eagles within oval compartments in blue on a red ground.
In Greece and on the islands of the eastern Mediterranean embroidery was much employed for the decoration of costumes, portières, and bed-curtains. Large numbers of examples have been discovered in Crete, and patterns of a distinctive character also have been found in Rhodes, Cos, Patmos, and other Greek islands of the Aegean. Some examples show traces of the influence of the Venetian trading settlements in the archipelago in the 16th and 17th centuries.
Among the Turks a great development of the arts followed upon their conquest of Asia Minor and the Byzantine territory in Europe. Their embroideries show a preference for floral forms—chiefly roses, tulips, carnations, and hyacinths—which are treated with great decorative skill.
The use of embroidery in Asia—especially in India, China, Turkestan, and Persia—dates back to very early times. The conservation practices of these peoples renders the dating of surviving examples difficult to establish, but the greater number of such embroideries now seen in Europe are of no great age.
India has produced vast quantities of embroideries of varying excellence, usually taking their themes from religion and nature and with themes indicative of a particular region. The fine woolen shawls of Kashmir are highly sought after, and their first production appears to date back to early times. The somewhat “gaudy” effect of many Indian embroideries is at times intensified by the addition of beetles’ wings, tinsel, or fragments of mirrors.
China, the original home of the silkworm, reached an advanced stage in the textile arts at a date long before that of any equally skilled work in Europe. Embroideries worked there were generally in silk threads on a ground of the same material. Such work was commonly used for various articles of costume, and for household items, such as coverlets, screens, banners, chair-covers, and table-hangings. The ornaments upon the robes especially were prescribed according to the rank of the wearer. The designs include elaborate landscapes with buildings and figures, dragons, birds, animals, symbolic devices, and especially flowers. The material to be embroidered was first stretched upon a frame on pivots; pattern-books with woodcuts were published for the workers’ guidance and use. A kind of embroidery exported in large quantities from Canton to Europe rivals painting in the variety and gradation of its colors and in the smoothness and regularity of its surface.
Embroidery in Japan resembles that of China, the country which probably supplied its earliest models. Japanese work usually is more pictorial and fanciful than that of China, and the stitching looser. A brush was often used to add to the variety of the embroidered work, and, in many cases, the needle was an adjunct accessory upon a fabric already ornamented with printing or painting. Japanese work is characterized generally by bold and broad treatment, and artistic skill is shown in the representation of landscapes—figures, rocks, waterfalls, animals, birds, trees, flowers, and clouds, each being rendered by a few lines or strokes. Large temple hangings are more elaborate, and the pattern is frequently thrown into relief, completely covering the ground material.
Embroidery in Persia has been used to a great extent for the decoration of carpets, for prayer or for use at the bath. Robes, hangings, curtains, tablecovers, and portières are also embroidered. A preference is shown for floral patterns, but the ancient Persians had no apparent Islamic scruples about introducing the forms of men and animals into their designs—the former often depicted as engaged in hawking or hunting, or feasting in gardens. Panels embroidered with close diagonal bands of flowers were made into loose trousers for women. The embroidered shawls of Kerman were widely celebrated, and hangings and covers of cloth patchwork have been embroidered in many parts of Persia, more particularly at Resht and Isfahan.
In Turkestan, especially at Bokhara, excellent embroideries were produced, some patterns being of a bold floral type, and others conventionalized into hooked and serrated outlines. The work is most usually seen in bright-colored silks, with red predominating, on a linen background.
In North Africa the embroidery of Morocco and Algeria deserves some notice. The former inclines more to geometrical forms, and the latter to patterns of a floral character.
The explorers and settlers of the continents of the Americas brought with them the culmination of all the skills and crafts of their European forebears, stitchery among them. Once the priorities of subsistence, preparation, and preservation of food and minimal clothing and bedding needs were seen to, women of the household began following their natural instincts to adorn and decorate the family’s abode and attire. Women commonly prepared wool for spinning and linen (from flax) for weaving; and while most did not make decorative items when they were responsible for all the mundane day-to-day sewing, it was but a small step to begin embellishing such items as bed coverings, chair covers, and clothing with the decorative stitchery they had learned from their European mothers and grandmothers.
As the family’s economic situation improved, so did their aspirations for the “good life.” Girls were expected to learn, among many other domestic skills, the art of stitching and embroidering clothes, samplers, quilts, upholstery, and other bits of cloth and leather. Even the most affluent families had very little cash money available with which to purchase fineries and fripperies, so self-decoration became necessary if one was to improve upon the drab surroundings of her home and dress. Some of these early pieces were even framed and displayed as we might today hang fine artwork on the walls of our houses. Subjects ranged from portraits to moral messages to patriotic themes to domestic tableaux, depending on the period and the cultural heritage of the family in question.
The use of embroidery as a learning tool became one of the hallmarks of the well-prepared young woman. While her brothers might well expect to be educated in traditional academic studies preparatory to learning a trade, girls were taught only the bare rudiments of arithmatic and reading, if at all. They were expected, instead, to prepare themselves for marriage and the management of a well-run home. From the age of five or six, each girl was given her “stint” at embroidering at least two “samplers.” A “marking” sampler was undertaken first, and included the alphabet and numbers. This accomplished two tasks. She learned not only the basic stitch (usually a “cross” stitch), but, more importantly, her ABCs and numbers. Such examples (many of which are extant in museums and private collections) are usually marked with the girl’s initials and a number, an important tool for keeping track of her valuable household linens.
The second sampler, usually completed by adolescence, might be accomplished (if the girl’s family was particularly affluent) at a ladies’ boarding or “finishing” school, where the student would learn the skills required of a lady of refinement. These later samplers, which were commonly hung on the wall of the family parlor, were important to reveal the virtues of the young woman and the values of her family to prospective suitors. Usual topics for these more decorative samplers and needlework “pictures” were adages and biblical passages. In some cases the family’s lineage or heritage is set forth, and the pieces are normally “signed” with the creator’s name and the date of completion.
Other existing examples of decorative embroidery of the colonial period include bedcoverings and hangings, usually of linen, decoratively stitched in brightly-colored wool with plants, flowers, and birds; and, less commonly, embroidered upholstery seats and chair backs. During the 18th century “professional” embroidered textiles were introduced, and talented embroiderers in the community are known to have sold or bartered their handicraft to neighbors.
Quiltmaking, particularly those utilizing appliqué work, has been a popular activity from colonial days to modern times. Saving up bits of cloth from which to “piece” together intricately-designed bed coverings is a practice which sprung from practicality, and has evolved into a highly prized artform. Family and community women gathered in quilting “bees” to put the pieces together in designs handed down from mother to daughter over centuries. One method is for each participant to work one “square,” often embroidered with the name of the preparer and date of the making. Quilts commemorated weddings, anniversaries, new baby arrivals, and other similar occasions. The most significant of these “commemoration” quilts undertaken in the modern era has been the “AIDS Quilt.” Since 1987 over 40,000 3’-by-6’ panels have been decorated, often with embroidered names, dates of birth and death, and quotations by friends and family members in remembrance of the victims of AIDS. The resulting quilt is over 1,293,000 square feet in size and weighs over 50 tons. Transported and displayed in sections, the Quilt has raised millions of dollars for Direct Services to People with AIDS, and is a most remarkable example of the utilization of an ancient artform in the modern era.
When European colonists came to the Americas, they confronted indigenous native populations who had developed their crafts and skills from prehistoric times independently of European influence. Fragments containing simple Pueblo “running” stitches have been retrieved from Puebloan sites (1100 AD to 1300 AD), and examples of similar designs on Pueblo clothing from the 19th and early 20th centuries have been collected by individuals and museums throughout the Americas. In the American Southwest of a thousand years ago, sandals, bags, and ropes were fabricated from a variety of plant materials, including hemp, yucca and, agave; and blankets woven of cordage produced from skins and feathers on horizontal looms were produced, archeolgists believe, from as long ago as 8000 BCE. While extant examples are scarce, the upright loom had been introduced and textile production was well established by the time of the Spanish conquistadores of the 16th and 17th centuries.
These explorers documented extensive cotton-growing operations by native peoples in the areas now encompassing Texas and New Mexico. Embroidery as an artform already existed, and Indian clothing is described by Castano, an adventurer of the time, as being “very elegant and elaborately decorated.” During the time of Spanish dominance taxes were exhorted from the natives, often in the form of woven “mantas” (ceremonial garb). Spanish treadle looms and spinning wheels were introduced into the culture, as were sheep (and woolen fibers). Spanish examples of elaborate vestment embroidery based on methods originating in Asia and Europe further influenced Indian output. Fearing that native crafts were dying out, the Indian Arts Fund was established in 1925 to aid in preserving Pueblo arts, and programs at the Santa Fe Indian School (and Market) during the 1940s and ’50s encouraged their students and members to expand their marketable skills by producing small embroidered household items for the marketplace. Today, Pueblo embroidery is still used to embellish ceremonial mantas, kilts, and sashes, just as it has been for centuries, as well as for creating beautiful new artforms for a broader audience.
The invention of the first sewing “machine” in 1790 by Thomas Saint of Britain was followed by an improved version patented by Frenchman Barthelmy Thimmonier (1793-1857). His factory was burned to the ground by an angry mob of tailors who feared displacement, but the advent of the sewing machine coincided with the rising Industrial Revolution, and changed forever the production method for clothing, moving it from a predominantly “cottage”-type industry into the large, impersonal factories. The birth of the first commercial embroidery manufacturing establishment in New York was that of Jacob Schiess, begun in 1848 with the hiring of fifteen woman who stitched his products by hand. Joshua Heilmann of Mulhouse began developing a small hand embroidery machine in the 1800s. Although he did little business, his invention revolutionized the industry, and was quickly followed by “shuttle” and “chain stitch” embroidery devices, the former devised by Isaak Groebli of Switzerland in the 1860s. By the 1870s there were as many as 14 companies manufacturing hand loom embroidery machines in Switzerland alone.
In 1873 Alphonse Kursheedt imported a dozen of the Swiss machines to the United States. Although they were powered by hand, they utilized multiple needles, thus streamlining the process tremendously. Shortly thereafter, Groebli completed work on the first embroidery machine based on the principal of the sewing machine, and which utilized both the continuously threaded needle and the shuttle-enclosed bobbin. The shuttle itself resembled the hull of a sailboat. Since “Schiffli” in Swiss means “little boat,” Groebli’s machine quickly became known as a “schiffli” machine, a name still in common use today. In 1876 a number of the new schiffli machines were imported to America by Kursheedt, thus making him the founder of the schiffli industry in the United States.
In 1903 Dr. Robert Reiner, a recent immigrant to the United States, recognized the potential in the fledgling industry and petitioned the Vogtlandishe Machine works in Plauen, Germany to make him their agent in New Jersey. Credit was arranged through local banks, and soon hundreds of foreign-born entrepreneurs were importing embroidery machines and setting up manufacturing enterprises. In 1938 the German and Swiss sources for the machines ceased doing business, a side-effect of World War II, and no additional machines were produced until Robert Reiner’s company in Weehawken introduced the first American-made schiffli in 1953. Advancements and improvements have continued over the years, and today computers have entered the scene.
Modern machine embroidery (commonly utilizing either polyester or rayon embroidery thread), is defined as the creation “manually” with “freehand” or “built-in” stitches of a design on a piece of fabric or clothing, or, alternatively, the use of a computerized sewing or embroidery machine to automatically complete the same task using a design pre-programmed by the computer into the sewing machine. The first Computer Graphics Embroidery system was created by Wilcom in 1980. Its mini-computer technology was improved in 1982 with the first multi-user capacity, allowing more than one person to work on a project at a time.
Direct computer control of a schiffli machine utilizing electronic programming further enhanced its capability, as did the introduction of Wilcom’s Computer Embroidery Design (CED) software to the industry in 1984. Drawing designs into the CED software now became possible with “object-oriented” programming, and eventually Wilcom’s ES Suite allowed graphical user interface, greatly enhancing the creative process for both artist and designer. Since the 1990s computerized machine embroidery has become more popular than ever, and by 2005, the home user could purchase a machine complete with digitizing program for less than $500. Many commercial patterns from individuals, other companies, and machine manufacturers are now available to better assist those uncomfortable with creating their own designs from scratch.
Embroidery patterns, either custom or commercial, can be transferred to the computer through cables, CDs, floppys, or cards. The common PES format is compatible with models designed for the home by such manufacturers as Brother, Babylock, Bernina, White and Simplicity, while the DST (Tajima) format works best in a commercial setting. Machines range in price from $400 for the simplest home model all the way up to $125,000 or more for commercial application. Digitizing software ranges from free to $15,000, but one can expect to pay from a few hundred to several thousand dollars for speedy auto-digitizing (“auto-punch”) results of at least medium quality. High-end professional software (such as Wilcom’s ES Designer Professional Embroidery) can cost the purchaser from $5,000 to $15,000, depending on enhancements. A stitcher should only purchase those features that he or she will actually use, and most professional software can be tailored to individual needs.
Programs are also available which allow a sewer to edit commercial designs by resizing, increasing, or decreasing density and “splitting,” and many can be downloaded from websites without the necessity of visiting stores or waiting for shipments. Some sites even offer tools that allow a person to customize “stock” designs without expensive digitizing software, although this latter service is of more use to the average consumer than the full-time professional designer. While there are commercial programs available to “view” Tajima commercial formats, some open source applications (such as Embroidermodder or Wilcom’s TrueSizer) are free. Other design files available in consumer-oriented formats (ART, PES, VIP, JEF, SEW, and HUS) are typically downloaded to the computer, then transferred to the embroidery machine.
Because the digitizing industry is relatively new, software reviews are rare. Still, it is recommended that the prospective buyer make an effort to research quality and ease of use before purchasing. Good on-line sources are newsgroups such as Yahoo’s eThreads or Embroidery_Totally_On_Topic. One can also attend trade shows and conventions, ask for product demos, and interview professionals about the products they are currently using. Some of the recommended entry-level digitizing programs include: Embird, PE Design, and Generations. Better quality professional software manufacturers include: Wilcom, Sierra, Barudan, Wings, Compucon, and Pulse. Their websites note current trends and features of importance to the consumer. For commercial manufacturing and custom logo merchandise, companies like Jaron Logo which use 12 head Barudan multihead computer driven embroider machines can develop and manufacture your custom logo products using the latest techniques in digital or electronic embroidery.
Embroidery is an artform as old as humankind, found in all the cultures and societies of the world, and is a rewarding and positive reflection of the time and place of its creators.
Stitchery Terms
Methods:
Hand-Sewing: the needle is inserted into the upside of the fabric and brought back to the surface in one movement and the thread pulled through. A thimble is recommended to protect the “pushing” finger from the needle (note: thimbles of various times and cultures are constructed of various materials, including bone, ivory, and metal, often fancifully decorated, and are highly collectible in today’s market). This method can be employed on an embroidery frame (which allows for adjustment of fabric tension) or free-hand.
Stab Method: the needle is “stabbed” into the upside of the fabric at a 90-degree angle, and the thread pulled through. The action is reversed and the needle is again inserted, this time from the underside, and again the thread pulled through. The use of a frame or hoop with this method is preferred.
Common Embroidery Stitches:
Straight Stitch: stitches passed through the fabric in a straight up and down motion in a single direction. Examples are: running stitch; basting stitch; simple satin stitch; “Algerian eye” stitch, and “fern” stitch. Straight stitches moving in two directions include: “Holbein” stitch (or double running stitch) and “Bosnian” stitch.
Back Stitches: stitches passing through the fabric in a circling motion include: stem stitch (or outline stitch), split stitch, and crewel stitch.
Chain Stitches: stitches that catch a loop of thread on the fabric surface include: “Lazy Daisy” or detached chain stitch and “Spanish” chain or “Zig-Zag” chain.
Buttonhole or Blanket Stitches: stitches that catch a loop of thread, where the needle does not return to the original hole to pass to the back of the fabric, but is returned to the back at a right angle to the original start of the thread. Examples include: closed buttonhole stitch, buttonhole stitch combined with knots, top-knotted buttonhole stitch, “German” knotted buttonhole stitch, “tailor’s” buttonhole stitch, and “Armenian” edging stitch.
Fly or Feather Stitches: stitches that catch a loop of thread on the surface of the fabric, but not at right angles, often alternating from side to side. Examples include: Y stitch, Faggoting or Straight Open Cretan stitch, and Cretan stitch.
Cross Stitches: one of the most popular and universally applied stitches creates a line of diagonal stitches going in one direction, usually using the warp and weft of the fabric as a guide, then on the return journey crossing the diagonal in the other direction, creating an “x.” Examples include: “Herringbone” stitch, hem stitch, “Breton” stitch, “Sprat’s Head” stitch, and “Crow’s Foot” stitch.
Knotted Stitches: a knot is created by wrapping the thread around the needle several times, then passing it through the ground to the fabric back. This stitch is often used to create flowers (notably in Brazilian embroidery). Examples are: Candlewicking (the knots are created by winding a figure 8 around the needle), “French” or twisted knot stitch, “Chinese” knot, Bullion knot, Coral stitch, Knotted Loop stitch, Plaited Braid stitch, “Sorbello” stitch, and Diamond stitch.
Couching or Laid Stitches: stitches utilizing two sets of threads, one “laid” onto the surface of the fabric, and another set attaching the laid set to the fabric.
Types of Embroidery
Free Embroidery: designs are applied without regard to the weave of the fabric. Examples include: crewel and traditional Chinese embroidery.
Counted Thread Embroidery: stitches of predetermined numbers of threads create patterns in the fabric (usually an even-weave fabric such as embroidery canvas or linen). Examples include: needlepoint and cross-stitch.
Surface Embroidery: patterns are worked on top of the foundation fabric using decorative stitchery and “laid” threads.
Canvas Work: threads are stitched through the mesh of the fabric, creating a dense pattern completely covering the foundation.
Copyright 2007 Jaron Logo
